STICKNEY 
'he  Use  of  Maize  by  Wisconsin  Indians. 


THE  USE  OE  MAIZE  BY  WISCONSIN  INDIANS. 


In  an  entertaining  and  instructive  chapter  upon  "The 
Indian  as  an  Agriculturalist,"  [i]  Mr.  Lucien  Carr  has  amassed 
a  wonderful  amount  of  information  on  the  agricultural  attain- 
ments of  the  Indian  tribes  formerly  dwelling  in  North  America 
east  of  the  Mississippi.  He  devotes  most  of  his  attention  to  the 
eastern  and  southern  portions  of  this  region,  passing  over  the 
Wisconsin  Indians  with  a  few  general  statements  limited  to  a 
single  paragraph. 

Wisconsin  is  on  the  borderland  of  the  profitable  culture  of 
maize  when  this  culture  is  assisted  by  the  devices  of  civilization. 
In  some  portions  of  the  state,  on  the  warmer  soils,  this  crop  is 
about  as  sure  as  it  is  anywhere.  In  other  districts,  notably  in 
the  northern  part,  on  the  heavy  red  clay,  in  all  probability 
maize  growing  will  never  be  very  remunerative.  [2]  With 
these  facts  in  mind,  it  may  be  of  interest  to  gather  from  the 
records  of  the  early  missionaries  and  travelers  the  information 
which  may  there  be  found  bearing  upon  the  agricultural  attain- 
ments of  the  Wisconsin  Indians,  thereby  localizing,  in  some 
degree,  the  work  to  which  reference  has  been  made. 

THE    HISTORY   OF  THE   PLANT. 

On  his  return  from  the  new  world,  Columbus  carried  to 
Spain  specimens  of  many  new  plants  and  animals.  It  is  quite 
likely  that  among  the  plants  thus  introduced  to  Europe  .was  the 
one  known  to  us  as  maize  or  Indian  corn.  [3]  The  distribu- 
tion of  this  plant  over  the  eastern  hemisphere  was  very  rapid. 

[1]    Smithsonian  Report,  1891,  pp.  807  et  seq.    Washington,  1893. 

[2]    W.  A.  Henry,  "Indian  Corn,"  in  Northern  Wisconsin,  p.  18.    Madison,  1898. 

[3]  J.  W.  Harshberger,  "Maize;  A  Botanical  and  Economic  Study,"  p.  75.  Phila- 
delphia, 1893. 


64  THE  USE  OF  MAIZE 

and  within  a  few  years  it  was  being  cultivated  in  many  parts  of 
Europe  and  had  even  reached  far-off  China.  [4]  Maize  is  an 
Arawak  word  of  South  American  origin,  adopted  by  Columbus 
in  its  Haytien  form  mahiz.  [5]  In  Europe,  generally  speak- 
ing, all  grain  used  for  human  food  is  called  corn.  The  early 
immigrants  to  America  brought  this  custom  with  them,  and 
finding  a  new  grain  here,  they  included  it  in  the  term,  identify- 
ing it  by  the  prefix  "Indian."  In  many  places  the  qualifying 
word  has  been  dropped,  so  that  to-day  the  three  terms  are  used 
interchangeably — maize,  corn,  Indian  corn. 

The  most  noticeable  peculiarities  of  maize  are  the  large  size 
of  the  kernel  of  grain  and  of  the  plant  itself.  The  grain  is 
the  largest  known.  The  plant  commonly  ranges  from  four  to 
ten  feet  in  height,  but  a  variety  sixteen  to  eighteen  inches  tall 
has  been  described  [6],  and  plants  thirty  feet  in  height  have  been 
reported  from  the  West  Indies.  [7]  Sometimes  as  many  as 
nine  ears  from  six  to  ten  inches  long  grow  on  each  plant,  and 
each  ear  has  from  eight  to  sixteen  or  more  rows  of  kernels.  [8] 

It  is  believed  that  this  plant  is  indigenous  to  America,  and  it 
is  considered  the  most  important  contribution  made  by 
America  to  the  vegetable  food  supply  of  the  world.  The  place 
of  its  origin  has  not  been  definitely  determined,  and  its  culture 
is  of  so  long  standing  that  it  is  difficult  to  identify  the  wild  plant 
from  which  it  was  developed.  It  is  generally  believed,  how- 
ever, that  this  plant  originated  somewhere  in  Mexico  or  Central 
America,  possibly  "near  the  ancient  seat  of  the  Maya  tribes, 
north  of  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec  and  south  of  the  twenty- 
second  degree  of  north  latitude."  [9]  The  Euchlaena  grasses, 
the  wild  plants  most  closely  resembling  it,  grow  in  that  region, 


[41  E.  L.  Sturtevant,  "Indian  Corn,"  in  Trans.  N.  Y.  Agr.  Soc.,  1877-1882, 
pp.  37-74. 

[5]    J.  W.  Harshberger,  op.  cit.,  p.  88. 

[6]    Bonafous'  "Nat.  Hist,  du  Mai's,"  quoted  by  Sturtevant. 

[7]    E.  L.  Sturtevant,  op.  cit.,  p.  61. 

[8]  Sturtevant  (p.  59)  lists  22  varieties  according  to  the  number  of  rows  of  kernels, 
from  8-rowed  to  36-rowed;  according  to  colors  he  lists  twenty  varieties. 

[9]    J.  W.  Harshberger,  op.  cit,  p.  54. 


BY  WISCONSIN  INDIANS.  65 

and  it  seems  likely  that  maize  was  domesticated  by  the  Mayas, 
the  most  advanced  of  North  American  Indians.  There  are 
to-day  a  great  many  varieties  of  maize,  but  most  of  these 
varieties  were  known  to  the  Indians  before  the  advent  of  the 
white  men.  The  Europeans  found  maize  in  cultivation  from 
Chili  and  La  Plata  River  in  the  South  to  the  Great  Lakes  and 
St.  Lawrence  River  in  the  North.  [10]  It  has  been  remarked 
that  the  development  of  this  semi-tropical  plant  into  a  great  food 
supply  so  far  north  as  it  was  found  forms  the  subject  of  an  inter- 
esting study  of  the  agricultural  instincts  of  the  Indian,  and  that 
while  the  plant  might  have  moved  east  or  west  accidentally, 
"skilful  cultivation  and  careful  attention  to  the  selection  and 
improvement  of  variety"  were  necessary  to  its  northward  move- 
ment, [n]  The  wide  distribution  of  the  plant  and  the  exist- 
ence of  its  many  varieties  argue  that  its  domestication  occurred 
at  some  very  remote  time. 

America  possessed  a  number  of  wild  grasses  having  more  or 
less  resemblance  to  the  wheat,  rye  and  oats  of  the  old  world; 
but  the  superiority  of  maize  was  so  marked  that  for  the  most 
part  cultivation  of  the  other  cereals  was  neglected.  Maize  was 
so  widely  and  so  largely  cultivated  as  to  provide  partial  sub- 
sistence to  the  greater  part  of  the  American  Indians.  If  they 
had  not  possessed  this  plant,  it  is  doubtful  if  cereal  agriculture 
would  have  had  a  place  in  their  advancement.  The  other 
cereals  can  not  be  successfully  grown  without  working  the 
entire  surface  of  the  field.  This  process  would  be  very  difficult 
without  the  help  of  the  plough,  drawn  by  the  larger  domesti- 
cated animals.  They  did  not  possess  these  animals,  unless  the 
buffalo  was  so  used.  There  is  no  evidence  to  show  that  it  was, 
although  Joliet  suggested  that  their  "young  wild  oxen  may  be 
easily  learned  to  plough  their  land."  [12]  While  the  other 

[10] 


i  ne  fooa  01  certain  JNortn  American  Indians,     etc.,  p.  i  ana  nuies.     wurtcMci,  toau. 
[11]     P.  R.  Hoy,  "Who  Built  the  Mounds?"  in  Trans.  Wis.  Acad.  of  Sciences,  Arts 
and  Letters,  vol.  vi,  p.  86.    Madison,  1883. 

[12]    '%etter,"  in  Smith's  Wisconsin,  vol.  i,  p.  302.     iMadison,  1854. 


66  THE  USE  OF  MAIZE 

cereals  require  the  reduction  of  the  whole  surface  of  the  field  to 
a  state  of  tilth,  in  maize  culture  it  was  only  necessary  for  the 
Indian  to  grub  up  the  spot  where  the  seed  was  dropped. 

It  seems  to  be  true  that  no  agriculture  other  than  that  of  the 
cereals  has  been  the  foundation  of  a  condition  of  life  approxi- 
mating civilization.  This  is  largely  owing  to  the  fact  that  the 
seeds  of  cereal  grasses,  as  compared  with  other  agricultural 
products,  are  very  rich  in  the  great  food  requisites  of  the 
nervous  and  muscular  systems.  As  a  stimulant  to  human 
activities,  in  its  heat-producing  properties,  maize  equals  the 
flesh  of  some  animals  and  exceeds  that  of  others.  [13]  Cereal 
agriculture  is  the  highest  form  of  this  art,  hence  those  who 
practice  it  must  be  more  advanced  in  culture  than  those  who 
depend  for  vegetable  food  upon  fruits  or  nuts  or  the  results  of 
minor  agriculture.  Cereal  agriculture  gives  man  a  regular 
though  varied  employment  during  most  of  the  year,  thereby 
directly  tending  "to  render  the  unit  of  human  labor  a  constant 
quantity."  When  this  has  been  accomplished,  a  good  start 
toward  civilization  has  been  made.  Thus  we  find  the  American 
Indian  in  the  peculiar  condition  of  a  combined  hunter  and 
agricultural  life,  his  position  in  the  culture  scale  being  largely 
dependent  upon  the  predominance  in  his  life  of  the  habits  of  the 
hunter  or  of  those  milder  agricultural  duties  regulated  by  the 
recurring  seasons. 

The  Indians  of  eastern  United  States,  at  the  period  of  their 
discovery  by  Europeans,  were  sedentary.  That  is,  they  had 
their  home  villages,  near  which  were  their  caches  and  fields, 
and  to  which  they  returned  after  their  plundering  forays  or 
their  hunting  excursions.  These  villages  were  moved  from 
time  to  time,  as  circumstances  demanded,  but  not  ordinarily  for 
any  great  distance.  The  Indians  were  still  in  the  hunter  state, 
their  agriculture  nowhere  being  sufficient  entirely  to  supply 
them  with  food.  [14]  But  at  this  period  maize  was  being 

[13]    W.  O.  Atwater,  "Foods;  Nutritive  Value  and  Cost."     Washington,  1894. 
[14]    J.  W.  Powell,  "Indian   Linguistic  Families,"  etc.,  p.  31,  in  Seventh   Annual 
Report,  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology.    Washington,  1891. 


BY  WISCONSIN  INDIANS.  67 

raised  to  some  extent  wherever  on  the  continent  and  adjacent 
islands  its  culture  would  bring  good  results.  Although  it  is 
impossible  to  tell  how  much  land  was  cultivated  by  any  one 
tribe,  or  what  degree  of  reliance  for  the  food  supply  was  placed 
upon  maize  culture  by  any  tribe  or  group  of  tribes,  the  early 
explorers  and  settlers  recorded  a  vast  amount  of  data  showing 
that  maize  was  grown  generally  and  in  considerable  quantities. 

THE   WAY    IN    WHICH    IT    WAS    GROWN. 

At  all  times  and  in  all  places  maize  was  grown  by  the 
Indians  in  much  the  same  way.  The  first  necessary  step  in  its 
culture  was  the  clearing  of  the  ground.  Some  spot  was 
selected  whose  vegetable  growth  suggested  great  fertility  of  the 
soil.  The  undergrowth  of  bushes  and  small  trees  was  cut 
down,  and  the  large  trees  were  girdled  a  few  feet  above  the 
ground  after  being  stripped  of  some  of  their  branches.  The 
ground  was  then  burned  over,  the  fire  destroying  the  dry 
branches  and  bushes  and  even  attacking  the  larger  trees. 
Among  the  blackened  tree  trunks  the  maize  was  then  planted  in 
irregular  rows  three  or  four  feet  apart,  the  ground  having  first 
been  broken  up  with  primitive  hoes.  The  seed  was  soaked  in 
water  for  several  days  before  planting,  and  nine  or  ten  grains 
were  placed  in  each  hill.  When  the  blades  showed  a  few 
inches  above  the  ground,  they  were  "hilled  up."  The  weeds 
were  removed  once  or  twice  during  the  season.  Among  some 
tribes  a  lookout  was  maintained,  guarding  against  the  depreda- 
tions of  birds  and  thieves.  The  planting  and  the  general  care 
of  the  crop  were  usually,  although  not  invariably,  entrusted  to 
the  women,  who,  we  are  told,  worked  in  common  in  some 
instances,  finishing  the  planting  of  one  field  before  beginning 
another.  Feasts  were  commonly  given  to  the  workers  by 
those  whom  they  assisted. 

Stirring  the  earth  around  the  young  plants  in  destroying  the 
weeds  doubtless  suggested  the  advantage  to  be  gained  by  heap- 
ing the  earth  around  them.  The  repetition  of  this  process  from 


68  THE  USE  OF  MAIZE 

year  to  year  gradually  formed  small  hillocks  or  mounds,  these 
later  developing  into  a  more  or  less  continuous  ridge.  This 
has  been  advanced  as  an  explanation  of  the  garden  beds  which 
were  found  in  greatest  numbens  in  Michigan  and  Wiscon- 
sin. [15]  Laphani  describes  these  as  follows:  "Another 
evidence  of  former  cultivation  occurs,  consisting  of  low,  broad, 
parallel  ridges,  as  if  corn  had  been  planted  in  drills.  They 
average  four  feet  in  width  *  *  *  and  the  depth  of  the  walk 
between  them  is  about  six  inches.  These  appearances,  which 
are  here  denominated  'garden  beds/  indicate  an  earlier  and 
more  perfect  system  of  cultivation  than  that  which  now  pre- 
vails." [16]  Lapham  also  describes  the  hillocks,  calling  them 
"Indian  corn  hills,"  and  says  that  the  corn  being  planted  in  the 
same  spot  year  after  year,  the  annual  additions  bring  the  soil 
into  the  form  of  hillocks. 

In  the  earlier  period  of  maize  culture,  the  method  of 
essartage  doubtless  obtained.  Under  this  method  small  sepa- 
rate clearings  were  made  as  has  been  described.  The  return  in 
the  first  crop  was  very  large,  fine  land  yielding  four  hundred  for 
one  and  the  poorest  land  rarely  falling  below  eighty  for 
one.  [17]  After  the  land  had  been  weakened  by  several  suc- 
cessive crops,  it  was  deserted  and  another  clearing  was  made. 
In  the  course  of  time  a  rank  growth  of  weeds  sprang  up  in  the 
first  clearing.  The  Indian  might  then  return,  burn  the  weeds 
and  other  growth  and  plant  another  crop.  In  a  year  or  two  the 
clearing  was  again  deserted.  The  Indians  early  learned  that 
the  fertility  of  the  soil  might  be  renewed  in  some  degree  by  the 
application  of  refuse  matter  of  various  sorts.  It  may  be  that  in 
visiting  an  old  clearing  it  was  noticed  that  the  vicinity  of  the 
former  dwelling,  where  organic  refuse  had  accumulated,  pos- 
sessed an  unusual  fertility.  Lafitau  says  that  great  importance 
was  attached  to  the  burning  of  the  tall  dried  stalks  of  a  former 

[151  E.  J.  Payne,  "History  of  America,"  vol.  i.  p.  310.  Oxford  and  New  York, 
1892. 

[16]  "Antiquities  of  Wisconsin,"  p.  19.     Washington,  1855. 

[17]  Payne,  op.  cit.,  p.  367. 


BY  WISCONSIN  INDIANS.  69 

crop.  The  Plymouth  Pilgrims  were  told  by  the  Indians  that 
"in  old  grounds  excepte  they  gott  fish  and  set  with  it,  it  would 
come  to  nothing."  The  Mexican  tribes  had  a  special  name  for 
the  land  once  occupied  by  human  habitations,  and  it  was  con- 
sidered very  valuable  for  purposes  of  agriculture. 

After  conquering  the  earth  and  getting  his  crop  well 
started,  the  Indian  agriculturist  often  met  certain  obstacles  to 
the  successful  result  of  his  labors.  Long  periods  of  very  dry 
weather  blighted  his  plants;  early  frosts  nipped  them  before 
maturity ;  or  they  were  destroyed  by  the  attacks  of  his  enemies. 
Experience  gained  in  combatting  these  difficulties  probably 
taught  him  to  store  corn  for  food  as  well  as  for  seed,  and  among 
the  more  advanced  tribes  it  led  to  the  adoption  of  irrigation  as 
a  defense  against  the  disasters  incident  to  continued  and  oft- 
recurring  drought.  With  a  little  care  in  storing,  ripe  maize  can 
be  kept  for  many  years,  and  such  stores  as  these  were  the  first 
form  of  wealth  based  on  the  produce  of  the  soil.  Among  the 
Indians  each  woman  conducted  her  harvest  separately,  carrying 
home  the  maize  grown  in  her  field,  or  burying  it  in  a  cache  in 
some  convenient  place.  If  carried  home,  the  grain  was  either 
stored  in  a  granary  or  in  the  top  of  the  house,  or  was  hung  in 
the  house  in  festoons  of  ears  braided  together. 

MAIZE    AMONG    THE    EASTERN    TRIBES. 

Before  turning  our  attention  to  the  Wisconsin  Indians,  it 
may  be  well  to  take  a  glance  at  the  eastern  tribes  which  were 
more  or  less  related  to  them.  About  A.  D.  1003,  after  a  winter 
in  Vinland,  Thorwald  found  an  island  far  to  the  westward  on 
which  was  a  corn-crib  of  wood.  Other  Northmen  are  reported 
to  have  found  corn  in  later  voyages,  but  the  identity  of  the  grain 
is  not  established.  When  Cartier,  in  1535,  sailed  up  St.  Law- 
rence River  he  found  the  Indians  at  Hochelaga  (Montreal) 
cultivating  large  fields  of  maize,  and  storing  the  grain  in  their 
houses.  Champlain  in  1610  said  that  maize  was  the  chief  food 


70  THE  USE  OF  MAIZE 

of  the  Indians  around  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario,  and  that  they 
stored  it  in  large  quantities,  enough  to  last  several  years.  When 
Champlain  ascended  Ottawa  River  he  found  Indian  corn  fields, 
the  plants  being  then  about  four  inches  high,  and  pounded  meal 
was  one  of  the  foods  set  before  him  at  an  Indian  feast.  The 
Iroquois  raised  maize  in  large  quantities  and  kept  it  in  store 
from  year  to  year.  It  is  said  that  while  some  of  their  neighbors 
were  hunters,  at  the  time  of  their  first  contact  with  Europeans 
these  tribes  were  distinguished  as  agriculturists.  In  New  Eng- 
land, Champlain  found  the  natives  cultivating  the  ground  and 
raising  enough  maize  for  their  winter  use.  He  reported  that 
the  corn  grew  to  a  height  of  five  or  six  feet,  and  that  hoes  of 
wood  or  bone  were  used  in  its  cultivation.  Captain  John 
Smith  testifies  that  in  1614  he  found  these  Indians  raising  corn 
in  large  quantities.  In  Mourt's  Relation,  we  read  that  the  Pil- 
grims in  the  long  winter  of  1620-21  "bought  greate  stores  of 
venison  and  eighte  hogsheads  of  corne  and  beanes."  They 
bought  these  stores  from  neighboring  Indians.  In  the  follow- 
ing spring  their  Indian  friends  instructed  them  in  "bothe  ye 
manner  how  to  set  it,  and  after  how  to  dress  and  tend  it."  A 
few  years  later  the  English  destroyed  in  Connecticut  more  than 
200  acres  of  corn  belonging  to  the  Pequots;  and  in  1675  the 
English  took  possession  of,  and  harvested,  a  thousand  acres  of 
corn  belonging  to  King  Philip.  In  1609,  in  Southwestern 
New  York,  Henry  Hudson  saw  a  house  in  which  was  stored  a 
large  amount  of  corn,  while  enough  to  load  three  ships  lay  dry- 
ing near  by.  The  Indians  of  New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania 
raised  corn  and  beans  which  they  sold  to  the  white  settlers. 
Kalm  says  that  the  Swedish  settlers  were  obliged  to  buy  maize 
of  the  Indians  for  both  sowing  and  eating.  William  Penn 
reports  that  the  Delawares  and  the  Shawnees  whom  he  found 
in  Pennsylvania  lived  on  maize  prepared  in  many  ways. 

The  earliest  account  of  the  Virginia  Indians  is  that  of 
Thomas  Hariot,  written  in  1587.  He  describes  maize  and  the 
method  followed  by  these  Indians  in  its  cultivation.  He  lists 


BY  WISCONSIN  INDIANS.  71 

four  varieties,  white,  red,  yellow  and  blue,  and  adds:  "All  of 
these  yield  a  very  white  and  sweet  flour,  being  used  according 
to  his  kind,  it  maketh  a  very  good  bread."  Captain  John  Smith 
and  Beverly  are  among  the  early  writers  who  give  additional 
information.  Beverly  says:  "The  Indian  corn  was  the  staff 
of  food  upon  which  the  Indians  did  ever  depend."  [18]  Le 
Clerq  writes  that  the  Neutrals,  the  Hurons,  and  the  Nipissings 
were  sedentary  peoples.  [19] 

The  statements  contained  in  this  rapid  survey  are  enough 
to  show  that  maize  culture  was  an  important  art  among  the 
eastern  Indians,  and  that  its  successful  practice  was  confined  to 
no  one  tribe.  Farther  to  the  south  it  was  even  more  important 
than  among  the  northern  tribes. 

In  the  consideration  of  maize  culture  by  the  American 
Indians,  two  points  seem  worthy  of  special  emphasis.  These 
are,  first,  the  Indians  taught  white  men  the  value  of  this  grain 
and  the  proper  way  to  grow  it;  second,  more  than  two  centuries 
of  civilized  cultivation  have  done  substantially  nothing  in  the 
matter  of  improvement  of  its  varieties.  [20] 

THE  WISCONSIN  INDIANS  AND  THEIR  USE  OF  MAIZE. 

The  task  of  classifying  North  American  Indians  according 
to  their  ethnic  traits  has  been  attempted  several  times  without 
satisfactory  results.  The  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology  has 
adopted  the  linguistic  classification  as  that  of  highest  promise. 
Under  this  system  the  Bureau  recognizes  fifty-eight  distinct 
families,  as  residing,  at  the  time  of  their  first  contact  with 
Europeans,  in  that  part  of  North  America  lying  north  of 
Mexico.  A  glance  at  the  map  which  accompanies  Major 

[18]  Upon  the  raisins:  of  maize  by  the  eastern  and  southern  Indians,  consult 
Carr,  "The  Mounds  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,"  in  Smithsonian  Report.  1891;  Cyrus 
Thomas,  "Mound  Exploration,"  in  Twelfth  Annual  Report,  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  and 
their  references. 

[19]  "Establishment  of  the  Faith."  vol.  i,  p.  110,  Shea's  translation.  New  York, 
1881. 

[20]  Sturtevant,  'Indian  Corn  and  the  Indian,"  in  American  Naturalist 
vol.  xix,  p.  233. 


72  THE  USE  OF  MAIZE 

Powell's  paper  discloses  the  fact  that  more  than  one-half  of 
these  families  dwelt  along  the  Pacific  Coast,  each  occupying  a 
comparatively  small  district.  Only  seven  families  are  noted  in 
the  region  east  of  the  Mississippi,  but  among  these  seven  are 
three  of  the  most  important,  the  Siouan,  the  Iroquoian  and  the 
Algonquian.  Wisconsin  was  the  meeting  place  of  the  first 
and  last  of  these,  and  bands  of  the  Huron  relatives  of  the 
famous  Iroquois  were  at  one  time  driven  by  the  latter  to  Wis- 
consin soil.  The  Siouan  family  was  represented  by  the  Winne- 
bagoes,  left  in  Wisconsin  in  the  westward  migration  of  the 
family,  and  bands  of  Issanti  Sioux  also  dwelt  in  the  western 
part  of  the  state,  northward  from  the  site  of  La  Crosse.  Most 
of  the  Wisconsin  Indians,  however,  belonged  to  the  Algon- 
quian family. 

The  territory  occupied  by  the  portions  of  the  Algonquian 
family  which  practiced  agriculture,  extended,  broadly  speak- 
ing, from  the  southern  limits  of  Virginia  and  Kentucky  to  the 
St.  Lawrence,  and  from  the  Mississippi  to  the  Atlantic. 
Included  in  this  territory  were  the  habitat  of  the  famous  Iro- 
quois confederacy  in  Central  New  York,  and  the  land  of  the 
Sioux  and  Winnebagos  in  Wisconsin.  Aside  from  these 
exceptions,  all  the  Indians  in  the  territory  were  Algonquins. 
This  family  once  formed  a  single  tribe  dwelling  near  the  Great 
Lakes.  When  the  separation  took  place  is  not  known.  The 
traditions  of  most  of  the  tribes  do  not  carry  them  back  very 
many  years  before  the  coming  of  the  Europeans.  As  the 
Algonquin  tribes  have  the  common  root  min  for  maize,  it  is 
almost  certain,  however,  that  this  cereal  was  cultivated  by  them 
before  the  division.  The  Wisconsin  tribes  belonging  to  the 
Algonquian  family  were  the  Ojibwa  or  Chippewa,  Menomonee, 
Outagamie  or  Fox,  Sac,  Miami,  Kickapoo  and  Mascoutin, 
while  bands  of  the  Ottawa  and  of  Illinois  lived  in  the  state  long 
enough  to  entitle  them  to  our  attention. 

Although  a  few  adventurous  Frenchmen  had  penetrated  to 
their  villages  before  that  time,  the  history  of  the  Wisconsin 


BY  WISCONSIN  INDIANS.  73 

Indians  in  their  contact  with  Europeans  may  be  said  to  have 
begun  about  the  year  1670.  At  this  period  the  Pottawattomies 
dwelt  along  the  peninsula  between  Lake  Michigan  and  Green 
Bay  and  on  the  islands  in  that  bay.  Across  the  bay  to  the  west 
were  the  Menomonees  or  Folles  Avoines,  near  the  river  now 
bearing  their  name.  At  the  head  of  the  bay,  a  mixed  village 
of  Sacs,  Pottawattomies  and  Winnebagoes  clustered  around 
the  mouth  of  Fox  River.  The  main  town  of  the  Sacs  was 
about  twelve  miles  up  this  river,  and  along  Green  Bay,  Fox 
River,  and  in  the  neighborhood  of  Lake  Winnebago  dwelt  the 
Indians  from  whom  this  lake  took  its  name.  On  Wolf  River 
were  the  Foxes,  the  one  Algonquin  tribe  to  come  into  contact 
with  the  French  without  yielding  them  ready  allegiance.  The 
since  lost  Mascoutins  with  their  allies,  the  Miamis  and  the 
Kickapoos,  dwelt  on  the  banks  of  Fox  River  above  the  mouth 
of  the  Wolf.  Along  the  southern  shore  of  Lake  Superior  the 
O  jib  was  had  lived  for  several  centuries,  while  a  considerable 
number  of  Ottawas  were  in  the  vicinity  of  Chequamegon  Bay. 
A  few  years  earlier  there  was  a  village  of  Hurons  at  the  head- 
waters of  Black  River.  Driven  westward  by  the  Iroquois, 
they  foolishly  incurred  the  enmity  of  the  Sioux,  who  speedily 
drove  them  east  again  after  a  comparatively  short  stay  on  Wis- 
consin soil.  Marquette  and  Allouez  found  Illinois  Indians  at 
Chequamegon  Bay,  whither  the  savages  had  been  attracted  by 
the  fishing  and  trading.  In  later  years  these  Indians  were 
often  in  Wisconsin  on  hunting  excursions  or  war  forays. 
Finally,  along  both  banks  of  the  Mississippi  and  St.  Croix 
Rivers  were  strong  bands  of  the  eastern  Sioux.  Stubbornly 
contesting  every  foot  of  the  way,  they  were  finally  driven  from 
Wisconsin  by  the  Chippewas,  but  in  the  last  half  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  they  were  numerous  in  the  northwestern  part  of 
the  state. 

Major  Powell  asserts  that  notwithstanding  the  general 
impression  of  the  present  time,  Siouan  migration  has  generally 
trended  westward,  and  that  in  comparatively  late  prehistoric 


74  THE  USE  OF  MAIZE 

times  it  is  believed  that  most  of  the  Siouan  tribes  dwelt  east  of 
the  Mississippi.  [21]  The  Green  Bay  region  was  the  territory 
of  the  Winnebagoes  until  the  prowess  of  the  Iroquois  confed- 
eracy drove  some  of  the  Algonquin  tribes  westward,  to  settle  in 
the  fertile  valley  of  the  Fox.  The  Winnebagoes  were  formerly 
very  numerous,  but  were  almost  exterminated  by  the  Illinois. 
Wisconsin  Indians  first  appear  on  the  page  of  written  history  in 
the  ''Relation"  ot  1640,  where  Vimont,  naming  Nicolet  as  his 
authority,  writer.  "One  enters  the  second  mer  douce  upon 
the  shores  of  which  are  the  Maroumine;  farther  still  on  the 
same  shores  dwell  the  Ouinipigou,  a  sedentary  people  (peuples 
sedentaires)  who  are  very  numerous.  [22]  On  the  same 
page  Vimojit  explains  his  use  of  the  word  sedentaire:  "Toutes 
ces  nations  sont  sedentaire,  comme  fay  desia  dit,  elles  cultivent 
la  terre."  Allouez,  one  of  the  best  of  the  early  authorities,  says 
that  he  found  at  Green  Bay  only  one  village,  comprised  of  sev- 
eral nations,  "Ousaki,  Pouteouatamis,  Outagami,  Ouini- 
bigout/,  containing  about  600  souls."  He  adds  that  all  of  these 
people  have  fields  of  Indian  corn,  gourds,  beans  and  tobacco. 
[23]  In  1728  Lignery's  expedition  was  sent  against  the  Foxes. 
This  expedition  was  composed  of  400  Frenchmen  and  some 
800  or  900  Indians.  Emanuel  Crespel,  a  Recollet  priest, 
accompanied  the  expedition  and  wrote  an  account  of  the  jour- 
ney. After  telling  about  the  enticing  of  the  Menomonees  into 
a  combat  and  then  the  surrounding  of  the  town  of  the  Sacs,  of 
whom  all  escaped  but  four,  these  four  dying  by  torture,  Crespel 
says  that,  on  August  24th,  "we  arrived  at  the  village  of  the 
Puants  much  disposed  to  destroy  any  inhabitants  that  might  be 
found  there;  but  their  flight  had  preceded  our  arrival,  and  we 
had  nothing  to  do  but  to  burn  their  wigwams  and  ravage  their 
fields  of  Indian  corn,  which  is  their  principal  article  of  food." 
[24]  Carver's  journey  in  1766  brought  him  to  the  Winnebago 

[21]  "Indian  Linguistic  Families,"  p.  112. 

[22]  "Relations  des  Jesuites,"  1640,  p.  35.    Quebec  ed.,  1858. 

[23]  "Relation,"  1670,  p.  94,  (references  are  to  the  Quebec  Edition). 

[24]  "Letter,"  in  Wis.  Hist.  Coll.,  vol.  v,  p.  90. 


Y  WISCONSIN  INDIANS.  75 

town  which  he  und  ruled  by  a  queen  whom  he  terms  "the 
good  old  lady.  He  says  that  the  land  near  the  town  is  very 
fertile  and  abc  ds  with  "grapes,  plums  and  other  fruits  which 
grow  spontaneously.  The  Winnebagos  raise  on  it  a  great 
quantity  of  1..  iian  corn,  beans,  pumpkins,  squash  and  water 
melons  with  s  .ne  tobacco."  [25] 

Before   •      ling  to   Wisconsin,   the   Pottawattomies   dwelt 
in    the    lov         peninsula    of    Michigan.      They  were    driven 
hence    by       >.e    Iroquois    as    early    as     1638.      Their    wan- 
derings   le«,    them    to    the    islands    at    the    outlet  of    Green 
Bay,  whe      :  they  gradually  spread  along  the  adjacent  main- 
land.    T      lan  says  that  of  all  the  western  Indians,  those  of 
this  trib      were    the  most  docile  and  affectionate  toward  the 
Frenct       ?errot  states  that  these  Indians  were  closely  related 
to  the        .es  and  the  Sacs.     Radisson  says  that  he  and  Groseil- 
liers  si  ,,.t  a  winter  with  the  Pottawattomies  (about  1660),  and 
his  ac  'ount  contains  the  first  passage  bearing  upon  their  field 
indus     es.     He  says:     "I  can  assure  you  I  liked  noe  country 
as  I       /e  that  wherein  we  wintered;  for  whatever  a  man  could 
der     j  was  to   be    had    hi    great   plenty,  viz:  staggs,  fishes  in 
ab        ance,  &  all  sort  of  meat,  corne  enough."     [26]     In  1667, 
Di      »n  wrote  that  this  tribe  planted  fields  of  Indian  corn  to 
sai     .hemselves  from  the  famine  which  was  too  common  in  this 
re   :on.     [27]     Two  years  later  Allouez  stated  that  this  tribe 
h:     .ields  of  Indian  corn,  beans,  gourds  and  some  tobacco.  [28] 
I       672  it  was  reported  that  four  different  peoples  dwelt  at  the 
d  of  the  Bay  of  the  Puants,  living  partly  on  the  results  of 
ir  hunting  and  fishing,  and  partly  upon  what  they  gathered 
.    m  the  earth.     [29]     Perrot  spent  the  winter  of  1665-6  with 
.  e  Pottawattomies.     In  the  following  spring  he  visited  the 
iamis  and  their  allies  and  formed  a  trading  alliance  with  them. 

[25]  "Travels,"  p.  30.    Philadelphia,  1784. 

[26]  "Third  Voyage  of  Radisson,"  Wis.  Hist.  Coll.-,  vol.  xi,  p.  70. 

[27]  "Relation,"  1667,  p.  18. 

[28]  "Relation,"  1669-70,  p.  94. 

[29]  "Relation,"  1672,  p.  38. 


76  THE  USE  OF  MAIZE 

The  Pottawattomies  tried  to  prevent  this  alliance,  and  upon 
Perrot's  return  to  their  village,  fearing  his  wrath,  they  gave  him 
a  sack  of  maize  and  five  beaver  pelts  "to  remove  the  anger  from 
his  heart."  [30] 

In  the  autumn  of  1679,  La  Salle's  party  coasted  the  western 
shore  of  Lake  Michigan.  Father  Hennepin  was  in  the  party 
and  he  tells  of  a  storm  which  kept  them  in  camp  two  days,  so 
that  they  consumed  their  provisions,  "that  is  to  say,  the  Indian 
corn  and  squashes  that  we  bought  of  the  Poutouatomis."  [31] 
On  the  ist  of  October  they  came  to  another  Pottawattomie 
village.  La  Salle  feared  that  his  men  would  steal  his  goods  and 
desert,  so  he  kept  on  for  three  leagues.  Then,  landing,  he 
sent  messengers  back  to  buy  corn,  but  the  Indians  had  fled  from 
the  village.  Hennepin  says  that  the  men  "took  what  Indian 
corn  they  could  carry,"  and  in  the  morning  the  Indians,  relieved 
of  their  fears,  brought  in  more  corn.  Just  a  year  later  Tonty 
was  obliged  to  desert  the  Illinois  country.  He  reached  Lake 
Michigan  and  he  says,  after  sailing  on  Lake  Michigan,  "as  far 
as  La  Touissant  we  were  wrecked,  20  leagues  from  the  village 
of  the  Poutouatomis.  Our  provisions- failing  us,  I  left  a  man 
to  take  care  of  our  things  and  went  off  by  land.  But  *  *  * 
we  did  not  arrive  at  this  village  till  St.  Martin's  Day  [November 
nth,  1680].  During  this  journey  we  lived  on  wild  garlick 
which  we  were  obliged  to  grub  up  from  under  the  snow.  When 
we  arrived  we  found  no  savages ;  they  were  gone  to  their  winter 
quarters.  We  were  obliged  to  go  to  the  places  they  had  left, 
where  we  obtained  hardly  as  much  as  two  handfuls  of  Indian 
corn  a  day,  and  some  frozen  gourds  which  we  piled  up  in  a 
cabin  at  the  water's  side."  [32]  Hennepin  journeyed  across 
Wisconsin  this  same  year,  but  he  says  nothing  about  the  Jesuit 
mission  at  the  Bay,  or  the  Indian  tribes  in  its  immediate  vicin- 
ity. La  Potherie's  history  contains  nothing  later  than  1701. 


[30]     'Memoire,"  p.  279.    Paris  and  Leipzig,  1864. 

[31]    "Description  of  Louisiana,"  p.  110,  Shea's  translation.    New  York,  1880. 

[32]    ''Memoir,"  in  French's  Hist.  Coll.  of  Louisiana,  vol.  i,  p.  58. 


BY  WISCONSIN  INDIANS.  ,    77 

In  it  he  states  that  all  the  Indians  of  the  Bay  region  are  happily 
placed,  as  the  country  is  beautiful  and  the  fields  are  fertile  for 
Indian  corn.  [33]  Later  we  read  about  the  Pottawattomies, 
"Their  isle  is  abundant  in  grain  and  well  tempered."  [34]  By 
1718  many  of  this  tribe  had  returned  to  the  vicinity  of  Detroit 
and  it  is  stated  that  the  women  cultivated  Indian  corn,  beans, 
peas,  squashes  and  melons,  which  "come  up  very  fine."  [35] 

The  Sacs  at  one  time  dwelt  near  Detroit  River,  and  in  com- 
mon with  other  Algonquin  tribes  were  driven  westward  by  the 
powerful  Iroquois.  About  200  of  them  were  on  the  shores  of 
Lake  Superior  in  the  time  of  Allouez.  In  the  "Relation"  for 
1667  (p.  21),  we  read:  "As  for  the  Ousakis,  they  are  savages 
beyond  all  others.  They  are  numerous,  but  wanderers  and 
vagabonds  in  the  woods  without  any  settled  home."  Contrary 
to  this  testimony  is  that  of  Allouez  and  Dablon.  Both  include 
this  tribe  in  their  descriptions  of  the  country  around  Green  Bay, 
and  both  testify  to  the  agricultural  attainments  of  the  Sacs.  [36] 
La  Hontan  states  that  the  Sacs,  the  Pottawattomies  and  some 
Menomonees  have  their  villages  on  the  shores  of  Fox  River 
and  mentions  corn  as  one  of  their  productions.  [37]  The  testi- 
mony of  Carver  in  1767  is  more  exact.  The  Sacs  before  this 
time  had  moved  westward  and  he  found  their  chief  village  on 
the  Wisconsin  River.  After  describing  their  town,  he  writes: 
"In  their  plantations  which  lie  adjacent  to  their  houses,  and 
which  are  neatly  laid  out,  they  raise  great  quantities  of  Indian 
corn,  beans,  melons,  etc.,  so  that  this  place  is  esteemed  the  best 
market  for  traders  to  furnish  themselves  with  provisions,  of 
any  within  eight  hundred  miles  of  it."  [38] 

The  Foxes  or  Outagamies  called  themselves  Musquakies. 
Chased  from  their  ancient  homes  by  the  Iroquois,  they  took 

[33]  "Histoire  de  1'Amerique  Septentrionale."  vol.  ii,  p.  79. 

[34]  Cadillac  in  "Margry."  vol.  v,  p.  120. 

[35]  New  York  Colonial  Documents,  vol.  ix.  p.  887. 

[36]  "Relation,"  1667,  p.  18;  1670,  p.  94. 

[37]  "Nouveaux  Voyages,"  vol.  i,  p.  137.    I^a  Have,  1715. 

[38]  "Travels,"  p.  33.     Philadelphia  edition,  17f4. 


78  THE  USE  OF  MAIZE 

refuge  in  the  country  of  the  Sacs,  twenty-five  or  thirty  leagues 
from  Green  Bay,  towards  the  southwest.  Allouez  estimated 
them  at  one  thousand  warriors  and  one  hundred  and  twenty  of 
them  were  with  him  at  Cheqtiamegon.  Warren  tells  of  their 
many  conflicts  with  the  Ojibwas.  In  1670,  their  chief  village 
was  on  Wolf  River.  At  that  period  Allouez  writes  of  them: 
"They  are  placed  in  an  excellent  country.  The  earth,  which  is 
black,  yields  them  Indian  corn  in  abundance.  They  live  by 
hunting  during  the  winter,  but  towards  its  end  they  return 
to  their  lodges  and  there  live  on  Indian  corn  which  they  placed 
in  cache  in  the  autumn,  and  which  they  season  with  fish."  [39] 
Four  years  before,  in  1666,  they  were  visited  by  Perrot.  La 
Potherie  says  that  the  land  around  their  village  was  of  excellent 
quality  and  gave  the  savages  an  abundance  of  Indian  corn,  but 
at  the  time  of  Perrot's  visit  they  were  destitute  of  all  things  and 
the  sight  of  their  misery  aroused  his  pity.  [40]  Hennepin 
passed  through  their  country  when  he  returned  from  the  West 
in  the  fall  of  1680.  He  states  that  all  this  country  where  the 
Miamis  formerly  dwelt  is  as  fine  as  that  of  the  Illinois,  and  that 
the  "Outaougamy,"  as  well  as  the  Mascoutins  and  Kickapoos, 
"sow  Indian  corn  for  their  subsistence.''  [41]  In  1718  it  was 
officially  reported  to  the  French  government  that.  "The  Foxes 
*  *  *  are  as  industrious  as  can  be ;  raise  large  quantities  of  In- 
dian corn,  and  have  a  different  language  from  the  Outaoues." 
[42]  Lignery's  expedition  in  1728,  whose  destruction  of  the 
crops  of  the  Winnebagoes  has  been  noted,  was  unable  to  catch 
the  Foxes,  and  accordingly  laid  waste  their  country,  burning 
the  villages  and  destroying  the  fields  of  Indian  corn,  peas,  beans 
and  gourds,  of  all  of  which  the  savages  had  great  abundance. 
Crespel  says :  "The  country  here  is  beautiful,  the  soil  is  fertile, 

[39]    "Relation,"  1670,  p.  98. 

[40]    Tailhan's  notes  to  Perrot's  "Memoire,"  p.  266. 

[41]     "Narrative  "  in  Shea's  Discovery  and  Exploration  of  the  Mississippi  River, 
p.  142.    New  York,  1852. 

[42]     "Memoir  Upon  the  Indians  Between  I,ake  Erie  and  the  Mississippi,"  1718, 
in  N.  Y.  Col.  Doc.,  vol.  ix,  p.  889. 


BY  WISCONSIN  INDIANS.  79 

the  game  plenty  and  of  fine  flavor."  [43]  Carver  writes  as 
though  the  raising  of  maize  by  the  Foxes  was  a  generally 
accepted  fact.  [44] 

The  identity  of  the  Mascoutins  is  one  of  the  knotty  problems 
in  Western  history.  Sagard  had  the  right  idea  of  their  loca- 
tion when  he  placed  their  country  beyond  that  of  the  Winne- 
bagos.  [45]  In  all  probability  the  Miamis  joined  them  not 
long  before  their  first  encounter  with  the  French,  and  doubtless 
the  tribes  were  closely  related.  Shea  traced  the  Mascoutins 
down  to  1763,  at  which  date  they  were  dwelling  on  the  Wabash 
to  the  number  of  ninety.  [46]  La  Potherie  vaguely  states  that 
a  contagious  disease  was  fatal  to  many  Mascoutin  chiefs  about 
1690.  [47]  It  is  likely  that  at  last  they  were  confounded  with 
the  Kickapoos.  The  allied  Miami,  Mascoutin  and  Kickapoo 
tribes  numbered  about  three  thousand  warriors.  Marquette 
speaks  highly  of  the  Miamis  and  says:  "The  Maskoutens  and 
Kickabous  are  ruder  and  more  like  peasants."  [48] 

Nicholas  Perrot  was  in  Wisconsin  as  early  as  1665,  and 
passed  nearly  all  the  time  from  1685  to  1700  in  the  region  then 
dependent  on  Green  Bay.  Writing  about  the  western  Indians 
for  the  information  of  the  Governor  of  Canada,  he  said  that 
Indian  corn  was  to  the  Indian  what  bread  was  to  the  French, 
and  that  lacking  corn,  the  Indians  thought  they  fasted,  no  mat- 
ter how  much  fish  or  flesh  they  might  possess.  [49]  Later  he 
writes:  "The  savage  nations  which  inhabit  the  prairies  are 
happily  placed.  There  are  animals  and  birds  in  great  number, 
with  an  infinite  number  of  rivers  full  of  fish.  The  men  are 
naturally  laborious,  and  attached  to  cultivating  the  earth,  which 
is  very  fertile  for  Indian  corn."  [50]  Perrot's  western  exper- 

[43]  "Letter,"  loc.  cit.,  p.  91. 

[44]  "Travels,"  p.  113,  ed.  cit. 

[45]  "Le  Grand  Voyage  du  Pays  des  Hurons,"  p.  201. 

[46]  "The  Indian  Tribes  of  Wisconsin,"  in  Wis.  Hist.  Coll.,  vol.  iii,  p.  133. 

[47]  Op.  cit.,  vol.  ii,  p.  249. 

[48]  "Relation,"  p.  14,  in  Shea's  Discovery,  etc. 

[49]  "Memoire,"  p.  51. 

[50]  "Memoire,"  p.  56. 


80  THE  USE  OF  MAIZE 

iences  were  mainly  among  the  Fox  River  tribes  and  the  Sioux. 
And  it  is  altogether  likely  that  the  Mascoutins,  the  Miamis  and 
the  Kickapoos  were  the  tribes  which  he  had  in  mind  when 
writing  these  passages.  When  he  first  visited  the  Miamis,  he 
was  given  a  feast  composed  of  sagamite,  "ou  bouillie  de  ble 
d'Inde,  de  viande  seche  et  d'epis  nouveaux  de  mais."  [51] 

Allouez  found  the  Mascoutins  established  in  a  very  fine 
place.  He  was  harangued  by  one  of  their  old  men,  who  said, 
among  other  things:  "Listen,  my  Manitou,  I  give  thee  where- 
with to  smoke,  that  the  earth  may  yield  us  corn,  that  the  rivers 
may  furnish  us  with  fish,  that  sickness  shall  no  more  kill  us, 
that  we  may  no  more  be  afflicted  with  famine."  [52]  Soon 
after  this  he  visited  the  Kickapoos,  and  they  brought  him  "a 
kettle  full  of  fat  meat  and  Indian  corn."  Dablon  also  mentions 
a  dish  of  Indian  corn  boiled  in  fat  and  says  that  he  easily  con- 
tinued his  discourses,  as  the  feast  was  of  Indian  corn  only.  [53] 
When  on  their  way  to  the  Mississippi  in  1673,  Joliet  and  Mar- 
quette  stopped  at  the  villages  of  these  Indians.  Marquette  says: 
"Their  soil  is  very  good,  producing  much  corn.  The  savages 
also  raise  a  quantity  of  grapes  from  which  good  wine  could  be 
made  if  one  wished."  [54]  Dablon  says  that  he  is  not  sur- 
prised that  the  Miamis  promptly  joined  their  allies  in  this 
favored  place,  the  beauty  of  which  had  about  it  "something  of 
a  terrestrial  paradise."  A  century  later  the  Miamis  had  moved 
southeastward  into  Indiana  and  Ohio  and  in  1794  General 
Wayne  wrote  of  them  in  these  words:  "The  Miamis  of  the 
Lake  and  Au  Glaize  appear  like  one  continued  village  for  a 
number  of  miles,  both  above  and  below  this  place;  nor  have  I 
ever  before  beheld  such  immense  fields  of  corn  in  any  part  of 
America  from  Canada  to  Florida."  [55] 


[51]  Tailhan's  notes  to  "Memoire,"  p.  272. 

[52]  "Relation."  1670,  p.  99. 

[53]  "Relation,"  1671,  p.  46. 

[54]  "Narrative,"  in  Shea's  Discovery,  etc.,  p.  14. 

[55]  Quoted  by  Manypenny,  "Our  Indian  Wards,"  p.  84.    Cincinnati,  1880. 


BY  WISCONSIN  INDIANS.  81 

About  Chequamegon  Bay,  we  read  from  information  fur- 
nished by  Allouez :  "It  is  a  beautiful  bay,  at  the  head  of  which 
is  situated  the  great  village  of  the  Indians  who  here  have  fields 
of  corn  and  live  a  sedentary  life.  There  are  800  men  carrying 
arms  divided  among  seven  different  nations  who  live  together 
in  peace."  At  this  time  these  people  lived  mainly  by  fishing 
and  cultivating  the  ground.  They  were  not  great  hunters.  It 
seems  that  they  raised  corn  in  considerable  quantities,  for  they 
stored  it  in  caches  dug  in  the  sand  near  their  fields.  A  few 
years  later  Marquette  mentions  incidentally  that  on  a  certain 
occasion  all  the  Ottawa  Christians  were  in  the  fields  harvesting 
their  Indian  corn.  Turning  back  to  1668  we  read:  "One  part 
of  the  year  they  live  on  the  bark  of  trees,  another  part  on  pulver- 
ized fish  bones,  and  the  balance  of  the  time  on  fish  or  on  Indian 
corn,  which  sometimes  is  very  scarce  and  sometimes  sufficiently 
abundant."  The  importance  of  corn  to  these  Indians  and  the 
extent  of  their  agriculture  seem  to  be  mooted  points,  and  one 
early  writer  has  given  evidence  of  this.  In  the  "Relation"  of 
1670,  after  a  somewhat  elaborate  description  of  Lake  Superior 
fisheries,  there  follows  this  statement:  "Thus  has  Providence 
provided  for  these  poor  peoples,  who  in  default  of  hunting  and 
of  fields  of  corn,  live  chiefly  by  fishing."  A  few  pages  later  in 
the  same  "Relation,"  we  read  of  the  same  people:  "They 
dwell  on  the  Point,  living  on  fish  and  corn  and  rarely  by  hunt- 
ing." The  year  following,  Chequamegon  Point  and  neighbor- 
ing islands  are  described:  "Where  the  Ottawas  and  the  Tion- 
nontate  Hurons  retire  either  to  fish  or  for  corn."  [56] 

A  hundred  years  later,  on  the  largest  and  best  of  the  islands 
at  the  mouth  of  Green  Bay,  Carver  found  an  Ottawa  village  of 
twenty-five  houses.  He  says  that  among  this  people  he  ate  a 
very  uncommon  sort  of  bread,  composed  of  corn  cut  from  the 
cob  while  in  the  milk,  kneaded  into  a  paste,  and  baked  in  the 
hot  embers  after  being  enclosed  in  leaves  of  bass-wood.  Car- 
ver adds :  "And  better  flavored  bread  I  never  eat  in  any  coun- 

[56]  "Relations,"  1667,  p.  9;  1668,  p.  21;  1670  pp.  85,  86  and  88. 


82  THE  USE  OF  MAIZE 

try-"  [57]  The  Ottawas  of  Wisconsin  were  closely  related  to 
those  of  Mackinac  and  1'Arbre  Croche.  These  places,  because 
of  the  advantages  for  fishing  and  the  excellence  of  the  land  for 
bearing  Indian  corn,  had  long  been  favorite  Indian  dwelling 
places.  Hennepin  says  that  "the  Hurons  and  Ottawas  culti- 
vate Indian  corn  on  which  they  subsist  the  entire  year,  together 
with  fish.  They  make  their  sagamite  of  water  and  the  meal  of 
their  corn  which  they  crush  with  a  pestle  in  the  trunk  of  a  tree 
hollowed  out  by  fire."  [58]  La  Hontan  also  speaks  of  the 
raising  of  corn  by  these  Indians.  [59]  Cadillac  says  that  the 
Indians  at  Mackinac  have  harvests  consisting  of  Indian  corn, 
peas,  beans,  pumpkins  and  watermelons.  [60]  Alexander 
Henry,  the  trader,  reports  that  the  Ottawas  of  1'Arbre  Croche 
grow  maize  for  supplying  the  traders  at  Mackinac  and  that 
when  compared  with  the  Ojibwas  they  seem  to  be  much 
advanced  in  civilization.  [61] 

The  Illinois  Indians  with  their  related  tribes  occupied  the 
country  from  Ohio  across  the  Mississippi  and  northward  as  far 
as  the  Fox  and  Wisconsin  Rivers.  The  early  writers  often 
refer  to  them.  They  are  described  as  dwelling  to  the  south  in 
five  large  villages,  "one  of  which  extends  for  three  leagues,  the 
cabins  being  built  on  a  line."  [62]  Next  we  learn  that  "they 
live  always  by  the  earth,  sowing  Indian  corn  which  they  have 
in  great  abundance.  They  have  melons  as  large  as  those  of 
France  and  a  quantity  of  roots  and  fruits."  [63]  Marquette 
says  that  game  is  abundant  among  them  and  that  they  never 
suffer  famine,  for  they  always  gather  a  good  crop  of  corn. 
Allouez  tells  us  that  these  Indians  "live  on  Indian  corn  and 
other  fruits  of  the  earth  which  they  cultivate  on  the  prairies  like 

[57]  "Travels,"  p.  26. 

[58]  "Description  of  Louisiana,"  p.  101. 

[59]  "Nouveaux  Voyages,"  p.  114. 

[60]  In  "Margry,"  vol.  v,  p.  81. 

[61]  "Travels,"  pp.  47,  52,  126.    New  York,  1809. 

[62]  "Relation,"  1670,  p.  86. 

[63]  "Relation,"  1671,  p.  91. 


BY  WISCONSIN  INDIANS.  83 

other  Indians."  According  to  Father  Marest,  the  women  pre- 
pared the  ground  for  sowing.  Joliet  states  that  the  women  are 
aided  in  this  work  by. the  old  men,  and  that  the  ground  is  so 
fertile  as  to  yield  three  crops  of  corn  each  year.  "When  they 
have  sown  their  corn  they  go  a-hunting."  Father  Membre 
records  the  winter  hunt,  saying:  "It  is  the  custom  of  these 
tribes  at  harvest  time  to  put  their  Indian  corn  in  caches,  in 
order  to  keep  it  for  summer  when  meat  easily  spoils,  and  to  go 
and  pass  the  winter  in  hunting  wild  cattle  or  beaver,  carrying 
very  little  grain."  Membre  later  says  that  these  Indians  can 
have  fields  anywhere  because  of  the  richness  and  fertility  of  the 
soil.  [64]  Dablon  speaks  of  the  lack  of  superstition  among 
the  Illinois,  suggesting  that  this  may  be  because  they  live  on 
corn  "which  readily  grows  in  the  good  lands  which  they 
occupy"  [65],  hence  they  are  not  fishermen  and  do  not  fear  the 
dangers  of  the  lakes.  These  references  might  be  multiplied, 
but  enough  have  been  given  to  show  that  the  agricultural  posi- 
tion of  the  Illinois  was  acknowledged,  all  the  testimony  tending 
in  one  direction. 

According  to  Ojibwa  tradition,  the  first  home  of  this  tribe 
was  on  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic.  Journeying  westward,  their 
first  stop  was  at  the  site  of  Montreal,  and  then  their  fires  were 
lighted  along  the  shores  of  Lake  Huron.  Then  came  another 
move  to  the  outlet  of  Lake  Superior,  followed  by  still  another 
westward  movement  to  La  Pointe  and  the  head  of  the  lake. 
In  1670-71  the  Ottawas  left  Wisconsin,  soil,  journeying  east- 
ward to  Manitoulin  Island  and  St.  Ignace.  After  their  depart- 
ure, the  O  jib  was  gradually  straggled  back  to  the  region  of 
Chequamegon  Bay,  which  they  had  deserted  many  years 
before.  Warren  says,  in  his  traditional  history  of  this  tribe, 
that  they  were  on  La  Pointe  Island  about  1500  A.  D.,  living 
mainly  by  fishing.  He  adds :  "They  also  practiced  the  arts  of 
agriculture  to  an  extent  not  since  known  among  them.  Their 

Allouez  and  Membr£,  in  Shea's  "Discovery," 

i^i>, m^iii    M  vr»1     i     r*    .'^ftl 


[04]    "Narratives"  of  Marquette,  Allouez  and  Membr£, 
etc.,  and  Joliet's  Better,  in  Smith's  "Wisconsin,"  vol.  i,  p.  301. 
[65]    "Relation,"  1671,  p.  48. 


84  THE  USE  OF  MAIZE 

gardens  are  said  to  have  been  extensive,  and  they  raised  large 
quantities  of  Mundamin  (Indian  corn)  and  pumpkins."  [66] 
Hennepin  gives  direct  testimony  as  to  the  position  of  the 
eastern  O  jib  was,  those  known  as  the  Saulteurs,  dwelling  at 
Sault  Ste.  Marie.  He  says  that  these  Indians  do  not  plant  any 
Indian  corn,  as  their  soil  is  not  adapted  to  it,  and  "the  fogs  on 
Lake  Conde  [Superior],  which  are  very  frequent,  stifle  all  the 
corn  that  they  might  be  able  to  plant."  [67] 

Alexander  Henry  passed  one  winter  at  Chequamegon, 
living  all  winter  on  fish  alone,  "seeing  no  bread."  In  1773  he 
distributed  some  seed  maize  among  the  Indians  near  Onton- 
agon  River,  which  they  planted,  it  resulting  in  good  crops  for 
two  years.  He  says  that  they  ate  the  grain  green  and  saved 
only  a  small  quantity  for  sowing,  and  hence  ran  the  risk  of 
losing  their  seed.  [68]  Carver  thus  describes  the  Ojibwa  or 
Chippewa  town  near  the  headwaters  of  Chippewa  river :  "The 
houses  are  built  after  the  Indian  manner,  and  have  neat  planta- 
tions behind  them."  [69] 

When  the  Petun  Hurons  were  at  the  headwaters  of  Black 
River,  they  had  some  small  patches  of  corn.  [70]  Later  they 
moved  to  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior  and  again  mingled  with 
the  Ottawas. 

In  the  "Relation"  of  1640  also  appears  the  name  of  the 
Nadvesiv  as  one  of  the  western  tribes.  Two  years  later  it  is 
stated  that  they  live  eighteen  days'  journey  from  Sault  Ste. 
Marie,  nine  days  by  water  and  nine  days  by  land ;  also  "These 
people  cultivate  the  earth  like  the  Hurons,  raising  Indian  corn 
and  tobacco."  [71]  Their  language  differs  from  the  Huron 
and  Algonquin.  Radisson  gives  additional  testimony.  After 
describing  the  winter  famine  in  the  village  of  the  Hurons,  he 
says:  "Some  2  moons  after  there  came  8  ambassadors  from 

[66]  W.  W.  Warren.  "History  of  the  Ojibways,"  in  Minn.  Hist.  Coll.,  vol.  v,  p.  97. 

[67]  'Description  of  Louisiana,"  p.  101. 

[68]  'Travels,"  pp.  198,  199,  206.  233,  234. 

[69]  'Travels,"  p.  54. 

[70]  'Relation,"  1663,  p.  20. 

[71]  'Relation,"  1642,  p.  97. 


BY  WISCONSIN  INDIANS.  85 

the  nations  of  Nadoueseronons,  that  we  call  now  the  Nation  of 
the  beefe.  These  men  each  had  2  wives,  loadenecl  of  oats, 
corne  that  grows  in  that  countrey,  of  a  small  quantity  of  Indian 
corne,  w'th  other  graines,  &  it  was  to  present  to  us,  w'ch  we 
received  as  a  great  favour  and  token  of  friendshippe."  A  little 
later  he  says  of  the  Sioux:  "They  sow  corne,  but  their  harvest 
is  small.  They  soyle  is  good,  but  the  cold  hinders  it  and  ye 
graine  is  very  small."  [72]  In  conflict  with  this  is  Marquette's 
statement:  "They  do  not  know  how  to  cultivate  the  earth, 
contenting  themselves  with  a  kind  of  marsh  grass  which  we  call 
folle  avoines."  [73]  Allouez  tells  us  that  the  Sioux  "have 
fields  in  which  they  do  not  raise  Indian  corn,  but  only 
tobacco."  [74] 

La  Salle  did  not  visit  the  Sioux,  but  he  carefully  gathered 
information  about  the  western  Indians.  On  August  22nd,  1682, 
he  wrote  of  the  region  of  the  Sioux :  "Moreover,  this  country 
is  uninhabitable,  unfit  for  cultivation,  there  being  nothing  but 
marshes  full  of  wild  rice,  on  which  these  nations  live.''  Accord- 
ing to  Carver,  the  Sioux  or  Naudowessies,  "have  no  bread  nor 
any  substitute  for  it."  [75] 

The  Menomonees  were  reported  in  the  "Relation"  of  1640. 
They  are  known  in  all  the  early  records  as  the  wild  rice  eaters, 
and  were  not  great  agriculturists.  La  Hontan  writes:  "The 
Sakis,  Poutaoutamis  and  some  Malominis  have  their  villages 
situated  on  the  shore  of  this  river.  The  Jesuits  also  there  have 
a  mission.  There  is  much  trading  in  peltries  and  Indian  corn, 
which  these  Indians  sell  to  the  coureurs  de  bois  who  come  and 
go,  for  this  is  the  shortest  and  easiest  passage  to  the  Missis- 
sippi." [76]  La  Potherie  says  that  the  Menomonees  have  but 
little  corn,  living  only  by  hunting  and  fishing.  [77]  Marquette 

[72]  "Fourth  Voyage."  in  Wis.  Hist.  Coll.,  vol.  xi,  pp.  83,  93. 

178]  "Relation,"  1671,  p.  39. 

[74]  "Relation,"  1667,  p.  23;  cf.  "Relation,"  1642,  p.  37. 

[75]  "Travels  "  p.  113. 

[76]  "Nouveaux  Voyages,"  vol.  i,  p.  137. 

[77]  "Histoire  de  VAmerique  Septentrionale,"  vol.  ii,  p.  70. 


86  THE  USE  OF  MAIZE 

gives  a  good  description  of  wild  rice  and  its  use  by  the  Menom- 
onees,  but  he  says  nothing  about  their  use  of  maize. 

Thus  we  find  that  one  narrator  describes  a  tribe  as  being 
almost  destitute,  and  another  writer  says  that  this  same  tribe  is 
happily  placed  in  a  fertile  land,  abounding  not  only  in  maize, 
but  in  other  vegetable  foods.  Thus  the  Sacs  in  1667  are  said  to 
be  worthless  vagabonds  with  no  settled  home,  yet  La  Hontan 
eighteen  years  later  finds  them  supplying  maize  to  the  Green 
Bay  market,  and  Carver  in  the  next  century  gives  them  a 
notable  commendation.  The  existence  of  famine  among  the 
Indians  is  not  conclusive  proof  of  the  absence  of  field  work  and 
its  resultant  harvest.  The  red  race  is  proverbially  improvident, 
and  we  know  that  enough  food  to  last  months  if  carefully  used 
was  often  consumed  in  a  single  feast.  The  festins  a  manger 
tout  and  the  exacting  laws  of  hospitality  were  responsible  for 
many  of  the  Indian's  hardships  in  the  matter  of  food. 

There  are  many  references  to  the  use  of  wild  rice,  not  only 
by  the  Menomonees,  but  also  by  the  Ojibwas  and  the  eastern 
Sioux,  and  it  may  be  asserted  with  safety  that  wild  rice  was  the 
chief  vegetable  food  of  these  three  groups,  and  that  to  them  it 
was  far  more  important  than  maize.  It  is  probable  that  they 
paid  some  attention  to  maize  culture,  but  this  art  did  not  reach 
a  high  position  among  them  as  a  source  of  food  supply.  [78] 
The  abundance  of  wild  rice  and  the  ease  with  which  it  might  be 
gathered  had  something  to  do  with  this,  but  danger  from  frosts 
was  the  chief  cause.  In  Northern  Wisconsin  at  the  present 
time  it  is  observed  that  as  early  as  August  frosts  sometimes 
damage  maize  in  small  clearings.  The  danger  from  this  source 
is  removed  to  some  extent  by  the  large  increase  of  cleared 
space  which  follows  the  settling  of  the  country.  This  phe- 
nomenon was  noticed  in  other  parts  of  Wisconsin,  and  early 
settlers  south  of  the  center  of  the  state  for  a  long  time  supposed 
that  they  could  not  successfully  grow  maize.  Now  it  is  as  sure 


[78]    Wild  rice  today  forms  about  one-fifth  of  the  food  of  the  Chippewas  in  Minne- 
sota, although  at  times  they  raise  good  sized  fields  of  com. 


BY  WISCONSIN  INDIANS.  87 

a  crop  with  them  as  it  is  with  their  neighbors  in  Illinois.  [79] 
The  clearings  of  the  Indians  in  Northern  Wisconsin  were  never 
large  enough  to  give  their  crops  protection  from  this  danger. 
The  northern  tribes,  therefore,  probably  ate  their  corn  before 
its  maturity,  relying  upon  trade  for  the  larger  part  of  their  seed 
corn.  As  the  Illinois  and  other  southern  tribes  often  reached 
Lake  Superior  on  their  trading  trips,  this  was  no  difficult 
matter.  La  Potherie  tells  of  some  Miamis'  giving  maize  .to  the 
Sioux. 

As  the  northern  tribes  were  lowest  in  the  scale  of  agricul- 
tural development,  so  the  southern  Indians  were  highest.  Even 
before  white  men  appeared  among  them,  the  Indians  had  a  well- 
developed  trade  in  furs  and  other  commodities.  The  advent  of 
the  whites  stimulated  their  field  industries  by  furnishing  them 
with  a  better  market  and  with  greatly  improved  tools,  both  of 
which  advantages  they  were  quick  to  understand  and  ready  to 
grasp  wherever  soil  and  climate  were  favorable. 

Summing  up  the  results  of  this  investigation,  we  find : 

First:  That  the  Wisconsin  Indians  dwelling  north  of  the 
line  of  profitable  maize  culture  gave  some  attention  to  the 
grain,  and  at  times  raised  it  in  considerable  quantities. 

Second:  That  the  Indians  of  Central  and  Southern  Wis- 
consin raised  maize  in  large  quantities,  enough  to  supply  their 
own  needs  and  leave  them  a  surplus  to  be  used  in  trade, 
although  as  agriculturists  they  never  attained  a  position  equal 
to  that  held  by  the  Iroquois  Confederacy  or  the  tribes  of  the 

South. 

GARDNER  P.  STICKNEY. 

Milwaukee,  Wisconsin,  March  9th,  1897. 


[79]  On  the  feasibility  of  maize  culture  in  Northern  Wisconsin,  see  Prof  W.  A. 
Hetm-.  "Indian  Corn."  in  Northern  Wisconsin,  a  handbook  published  by  order  of  the 
Wisconsin  Legislature. 


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